The role of self-esteem in the relationship between loneliness and life satisfaction in late adulthood : evidence from Poland

Downstream indirect reciprocity (DIR) is a behavior taking the form of a reaction to an individual’s kindness or reluctance towards a third party. The literature shows that the concept of DIR may be understood in many different systems of assessing an individual’s social exchange, retributive justice, religious belief systems, rudimentary moral systems, and general philosophical treatment, as well as from a natural selection and evolutionary approach. Given the importance of an empirically based examination of DIR, the aim of the current research carried out through Studies 1–5 was fourfold: (a) develop a reliable and psychometrically sound Downstream Indirect Reciprocity Scale (DIRS); (b) establish and examine the factor structure of the DIRS and its statistical properties, using exploratory factor analysis (EFA) (Study 1); (c) assess the relationship between the observed measures and latency factor of DIR through confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) (Studies 2–5); (d) measure the internal consistency and nomological validity (Studies 2–5). Although the first assumption consisted in constructing a questionnaire that would measure both positive and negative aspects of downstream reciprocity, the outcomes of the EFA and CFA confirmed the final version of the scale that assesses only the positive dimension of DIR (Positive Downstream Indirect Reciprocity Scale; PoDIRS-6). In fact, the EFA showed the one factor structure of the new measure, and the findings of the CFAs indicated that it meets the criteria for good fit. All of the analyses conducted defined a preliminary nomological network of convergent constructs (gratitude, life satisfaction, religiosity, and moral concerns). The PoDIRS-6 is the first scale designed to assess a set of ideas that are expressed in the belief that an individual who has done something good might get help from other people in the future. It is encouraged that a questionnaire be developed which will measure the belief that human actions can be punished or reproved when they are negative and morally bad (Negative Downstream Indirect Reciprocity Scale; NeDIRS).